Cheat Sheet — Rise of Nationalism in Europe

📅 Key Events — Chronological Timeline

1789

French Revolution — Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. People declared themselves "the nation." Birth of the nation-state idea.

1799–1815

Napoleonic era — conquests spread revolutionary ideas + Napoleonic Code across Europe. Also triggered nationalist reactions.

1815

Congress of Vienna — Metternich presides. Restores conservative order. Principles: Legitimacy + Balance of Power. Suppresses liberal nationalism.

1821

Greek uprising against Ottoman Empire. Poets, artists across Europe rallied support. Lord Byron died fighting for Greek independence.

1830

Revolutions across Europe — France, Belgium (separates from Holland), Poland. First wave of liberal-nationalist revolts.

1831

Mazzini founds Young Italy — first secret society for Italian nationalism. Later founds Young Europe (1834).

1832

Greece independent — first successful nationalist movement in Europe. Recognised by Britain, France, Russia.

1834

Zollverein — German Customs Union. 39 states join. Removes trade barriers. Economic unity before political unity.

1848

"Spring of Nations" — revolutions sweep Europe. Frankfurt Parliament in Germany (fails). Revolutions in Italy, Hungary. All crushed but nationalism proven unstoppable.

1848

Sorrieu's paintings — utopian vision of world of free nation-states. People marching under their own flags.

1859

Cavour allies with France; Sardinia-Piedmont wins Lombardy from Austria. Italian unification begins.

1860

Garibaldi's Red Shirts capture Sicily and Naples. Hands territories to Victor Emmanuel II.

1861

Kingdom of Italy proclaimed — Victor Emmanuel II as King. Most of Italy unified except Venice and Rome.

1862

Bismarck becomes Prime Minister of Prussia. "Not by speeches… but by blood and iron."

1866

Austro-Prussian War — Prussia wins. Austria expelled from German affairs. Venice joins Italy.

1870

Franco-Prussian War — France defeated. Southern German states join Prussia. Rome taken — Italy fully unified.

Jan 18, 1871

German Empire proclaimed — Hall of Mirrors, Versailles. Wilhelm I = Kaiser. Bismarck = first Chancellor.

1878–1913

Balkan crises — Ottoman decline, ethnic tensions, Great Power rivalry. Multiple Balkan wars.

Jun 28, 1914

Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo. Balkan nationalism triggers World War I.

⚖️ Germany vs Italy — Quick Comparison

Feature	🦅 Germany (unified 1871)	🍃 Italy (unified 1870)
Key leader	Bismarck (PM of Prussia)	Mazzini · Cavour · Garibaldi
Method	Wars — "blood and iron"	Diplomacy + military campaigns
Leading state	Prussia	Sardinia-Piedmont
Economic unity	Zollverein (1834) — before political unity	—
Three key wars	vs Denmark · vs Austria · vs France	Alliance with France against Austria
Role of people	Military conscription	Garibaldi's 1,000 Red Shirts — mass volunteerism
Ideology	Realpolitik — no idealism	Mazzini's romantic nationalism + pragmatism
Proclamation site	Hall of Mirrors, Versailles (France), Jan 18, 1871	Rome, 1870
Final piece	S. German states join after Franco-Prussian War	Rome (1870), Venice (1866)

👤 Key Figures — Who Was Who

Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte — Spread revolutionary ideas + Napoleonic Code. But also triggered nationalist reactions against French domination.

Metternich

Klemens von Metternich — Austrian Chancellor. Presided Congress of Vienna 1815. Architect of conservative order. Suppressed nationalism.

Mazzini

Giuseppe Mazzini — Founded Young Italy (1831), Young Europe (1834). Romantic nationalist — nations as God's creation. Multiple failed uprisings.

Cavour

Count Camillo di Cavour — PM of Sardinia-Piedmont. Pragmatic diplomat. Allied with France. Mastermind of political unification of N. Italy.

Garibaldi

Giuseppe Garibaldi — Military hero. Led Red Shirts to conquer southern Italy (1860). Surrendered territories to Victor Emmanuel II.

Bismarck

Otto von Bismarck — Prussian PM from 1862. "Blood and iron." Unified Germany through 3 strategic wars. First German Chancellor.

Sorrieu

Frédéric Sorrieu — French artist. 1848 paintings: utopian vision of world of free nation-states. First visual expression of nations as an ideal.

Herder

Johann Gottfried Herder — German philosopher. Concept of volksgeist (spirit of the people). Folk songs, language = national soul.

💡 Key Concepts Defined

Liberalism — Individual freedom, constitutional government, rule of law, equality before law; end of aristocratic privilege

Conservatism — Preserve tradition, monarchy, church; gradual not revolutionary change; Metternich's ideology

Romanticism — Emotion, nature, folk culture; nations have unique "soul" (volksgeist) expressed in language and folk traditions

Nation-state — State whose borders match a "nation" — people sharing culture, language, history, territory

Zollverein — German Customs Union (1834). Removed tariffs; created single economic market. Economic unity preceded political unity

Realpolitik — Bismarck's principle: politics based on practical power, not ideals or morals. "Blood and iron."

Volksgeist — Herder's concept: the unique spirit/soul of a people, expressed through their folk songs, language and customs

Legitimacy — Congress of Vienna principle: restore pre-Revolution monarchs and borders; "legitimate" rulers back on thrones

Balance of Power — Congress of Vienna principle: prevent any one nation from dominating Europe; redistribute territories to balance strength

Utopian nationalism — Mazzini/Sorrieu's vision: world of free, equal nation-states living in peace and brotherhood

🏛️ French Revolution — What it gave Europe

The Nation-State Idea (1789) The French Revolution showed that ordinary people — not a king — could be the sovereign "nation." This idea — that a people sharing culture and history should govern themselves — became the most powerful political force of the 19th century.

⚖️

Napoleonic Code

Uniform laws; abolished feudal privilege; right to property; equal treatment. Spread across occupied territories.

🇫🇷

National Symbols

Tricolour flag, La Marseillaise, Marianne (female allegory), "Liberty Equality Fraternity."

😤

Nationalist Reaction

French domination caused resentment in occupied lands → local nationalism. Nationalism was both spread by and a reaction to Napoleon.

🎨

Sorrieu's Vision (1848)

Painted people of Europe & America marching as free nations under own flags. First visual expression of world of nation-states.

💥 Balkans — The "Powder Keg" of Europe

Ottoman Empire declining — called "Sick Man of Europe." Balkans = diverse Slavic, Greek, Bulgarian, Romanian, Albanian peoples.

Each group wanted their own nation-state — but territories overlapped. Multiple rival nationalisms in one region.

Great Powers competed: Russia supported Slavs (Pan-Slavism); Austria-Hungary feared Slavic nationalism (threatened its empire).

1912–13 Balkan Wars — Ottoman territories carved up between rival Balkan states.

June 28, 1914 — Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip (Bosnian Serb nationalist). Triggered WWI.

Lesson of the Balkans Nationalism that liberates a people can also become aggressive and expansionist when it claims territories others also claim. The Balkans shows how nationalism, unchecked, can lead to war.

🎯 Exam Tips & Memory Tricks

Germany vs Italy — Who unified when?

Germany 1871 (Jan 18, Hall of Mirrors). Italy 1870 (Rome). Italy came first by ONE year — but Germany was proclaimed first chronologically in terms of final declaration.

Three Men of Italy

M-C-G = Mazzini (ideas), Cavour (diplomacy), Garibaldi (military). In sequence: Mazzini first inspired, Cavour built the state, Garibaldi conquered the south.

Bismarck's 3 Wars

D-A-F = Denmark (1864) → Austria (1866) → France (1870–71). Each war added territory. France was the decisive one — proclaimed at Versailles!

Zollverein is KEY

Economic unity came BEFORE political unity in Germany. Zollverein 1834 → German Empire 1871. Board exams often ask why Zollverein mattered for unification.

Who Painted / Who Wrote?

Sorrieu PAINTED utopian vision (1848). Herder PHILOSOPHISED about volksgeist. Mazzini ORGANIZED Young Italy. Brothers Grimm COLLECTED folk tales.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

Two principles to remember: LEGITIMACY (restore old kings) + BALANCE OF POWER (no one dominates). Metternich = the man who ran it.

1848 = Spring of Nations

Almost every country in Europe had a revolution. Frankfurt Parliament = Germany's attempt — failed when Prussian king rejected the crown. But showed nationalism was mass force.

Balkans Chain: assassination → WWI

Nationalist sentiment in Balkans → assassination of Franz Ferdinand (Sarajevo, June 28, 1914) → Austria-Hungary blames Serbia → alliances trigger → WWI. Nationalism caused the biggest war so far.

📊 Liberalism vs Conservatism vs Romanticism

Feature	Liberalism	Conservatism	Romanticism
Core idea	Individual freedom, constitutional rights	Preserve tradition & order	Emotion, folk culture, national soul
Supported by	Middle class (educated, property-owning)	Monarchy, church, aristocracy	Artists, poets, writers
View of revolution	Welcomed — needed to end old order	Feared — must be suppressed	Romanticised — heroic struggle
View of nation	Civic — shared rights, constitution	Keep existing kingdoms intact	Cultural — language, folk, heritage
Key thinkers	Frankfurt Parliament liberals (1848)	Metternich	Herder, Brothers Grimm, Mazzini
Economic view	Free markets (laissez-faire); end trade restrictions	Controlled economy; guild system	Handicrafts, village economy

📍 Important Places & Significance

Paris (France) — French Revolution 1789. Congress of Vienna 1815 discussions. 1830 revolution.

Versailles, France — German Empire proclaimed here (Jan 18, 1871) — deliberate humiliation of France.

Frankfurt, Germany — Frankfurt Parliament (1848) — liberal nationalists tried to unite Germany; failed.

Sardinia-Piedmont (N. Italy) — Led Italian unification under King Victor Emmanuel II and PM Cavour.

Sicily & Naples — Garibaldi's Red Shirts conquered here (1860). Handed to Victor Emmanuel II.

Rome — Last territory to join Italy (1870). Pope refused to accept loss — "Roman Question" lasted until 1929.

Sarajevo, Bosnia — Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated here, June 28, 1914 → WWI began.

Vienna, Austria — Metternich's capital. Heart of conservative reaction against nationalism in 19th century.

🍃 Italian Unification — Step by Step

1831 — Mazzini founds Young Italy. Multiple uprisings fail but ideas spread.

1848 — Italian states rise against Austria (part of Spring of Nations). Crushed.

1859 — Cavour allies with Napoleon III of France. Sardinia + France defeat Austria. Win Lombardy.

1860 — Garibaldi's "Expedition of the Thousand" (Red Shirts) takes Sicily and Naples.

1861 — Kingdom of Italy proclaimed. Victor Emmanuel II as King of Italy.

1866 — Venice joins Italy after Austro-Prussian War.

1870 — Rome joins after France withdraws protecting troops. Italy fully unified. Rome = capital.