Minerals, ferrous & non-ferrous metals, conservation, conventional & non-conventional energy
In cracks, joints and faults of igneous & metamorphic rocks — e.g., tin, copper, zinc, lead.
In horizontal strata of sedimentary rocks — coal, gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt.
Left after soluble elements are washed away — e.g., bauxite is formed this way.
In sands of valley floors & hills — gold, silver, tin, platinum (not corroded by water).
Common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters.
A mineral mixed with other elements. Mining is worthwhile only if the ore has enough metal content.
| Type | Iron Content | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Magnetite | ~70% | The finest iron ore; has excellent magnetic properties, valuable for electrical industry. |
| Haematite | 50–60% | Most important industrial iron ore in terms of quantity used, though slightly lower grade. |
High-grade haematite from Badampahar mines (Mayurbhanj & Kendujhar districts).
Very high-grade haematite in the Bailadila range (Chhattisgarh) — exported to Japan & South Korea via Vishakhapatnam.
Karnataka belt; Kudremukh mines — 100% export unit — one of the largest deposits in the world.
Includes Goa and Ratnagiri; ore exported through Marmagao port.
Malleable, ductile and a good conductor — mainly used in electricals, electronics and alloys. Mined in Balaghat (MP), Khetri (Rajasthan) and Singhbhum (Jharkhand).
Ore of aluminium, formed by decomposition of rocks rich in aluminium silicates. Aluminium is light, strong and a good conductor. Odisha is the largest producer (Amarkantak, Maikal hills).
Splits into thin sheets; has excellent di-electric strength and insulating properties. Essential for electrical & electronic industries. Found in Chota Nagpur plateau, Ajmer, Nellore.
Found in sedimentary rocks (calcium carbonate). Basic raw material for cement and essential for smelting iron ore in blast furnaces.
India's most abundant fossil fuel. Gondwana coal (older) in Damodar valley (Jharkhand-WB); Tertiary coal in the North-East. Used for power, industry & domestic fuel.
Fuel and raw material for petrochemicals. Found in anticlines & fault traps. Fields: Mumbai High, Gujarat, and Assam (Digboi, oldest).
Clean fuel found with or without petroleum. Large reserves in the Krishna-Godavari basin. Used as fuel and for petrochemicals (CNG, LPG).
Hydro (running water, renewable) and thermal (burning coal/gas, non-renewable). India has over 310 thermal power plants.
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight into electricity. India (a tropical country) has huge potential. Used in rural areas to minimise firewood & dung use.
India has a large wind-power potential. The largest wind farm cluster is in Tamil Nadu (Nagarcoil to Madurai). Also in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
Decomposition of shrubs, farm & animal waste produces biogas — more efficient than kerosene, dung cake & charcoal. "Gobar gas" plants benefit farmers.
Ocean tides trapped in gulfs turn turbines to generate electricity. Potential in the Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of Kutch and the Sundarbans.
Heat and electricity from the Earth's interior. Experimental projects at Parvati valley (HP) and Puga valley (Ladakh).
Energy from splitting uranium & thorium atoms. Thorium is found in monazite sands of Kerala. Plants at Kalpakkam, Tarapur, etc.
Rich mineral deposits are limited and depleting fast. As mining goes deeper, extraction becomes costlier and quality falls.
Recycling scrap metals (like copper and aluminium) greatly reduces the need for fresh mining and saves energy.
Develop alternatives and use improved technologies to make use of low-grade ores at a lower cost.
Use energy-efficient appliances, public transport and switch to renewable sources to conserve fossil fuels.